Table of Contents
Chapter 1
Gas Separation and Purification of Industrial Gases
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Thermodynamics
1.2.1 General Principles of Thermodynamics
1.2.2 Enthalpy (H) (J=kg)
1.2.3 The Second Law (The Availability of Energy)
1.2.4 Carnot Cycle
1.2.5 Entropy (S)
1.2.5.1 Irreversible Systems
1.2.6 Third Law
1.2.7 Real Gases
1.2.8 Compression of Gases
1.2.8.1 Critical Temperatures and Pressures
1.2.9 Compressibility
1.2.10 Free Expansion through a Valve
1.2.11 Inversion
1.2.11.1 Deviation from Boyle’s Law
1.2.12 Adiabatic Expansion
1.2.13 Thermodynamic Charts and Tables
1.2.14 Cryogenic Properties of Air
1.2.15 Refrigeration and Liquefaction Systems (Ideal and Reversible)
1.2.16 Vapor Compression Systems
1.2.17 Liquefaction Systems
1.2.17.1 High-Pressure Free Expansion (Isenthalpic
Linde–Hampson) System
1.2.17.2 Claude Isentropic System
1.2.17.3 Precooling Systems
1.2.17.4 Cascade Systems
1.2.18 Summary
References
Chapter 2
Industrial Applications
2.1 Early Development of Industrial Liquefaction Systems
2.2 Heat Exchangers
2.3 Expansion Machines
2.4 Contemporary Liquefaction Cycles
2.5 Linde Cycle (Free Expansion through a Valve)
2.5.1 Theoretical Analysis of the First Linde High Pressure Cycle
2.5.2 Theoretical Analysis of Linde Basic Cycle with Precooling
2.5.3 Theoretical Analysis of the Linde High-Pressure Dual Process
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
2.6 Theoretical Analysis of the Claude Cycle
2.6.1 Claude Cycle with Precooling
2.6.2 Claude Cycle with Dual Pressures
2.6.3 Claude Cycle with High Precooling to Liquefy Hydrogen or Neon
2.6.4 The Low-Temperature Refrigerator
2.7 Kapitza Cycle
2.8 Cascade Cycle
References
Further Reading
Chapter 3
Air Separation Technology
3.1 Air Separation Overview
3.1.1 Linde’s First Fractionation Machine
3.1.2 Distillation and Fractionation
3.1.3 Fractionation
3.1.4 Stripping
3.1.5 Rectification
3.2 Theoretical Considerations of Fractionation
3.2.1 Evaporation and Condensation
3.2.2 Simple Separation by Condensation and Flashing (Separators)
3.2.2.1 Application
3.2.2.2 Procedure
3.2.2.3 Practical Example (It Requires Iteration)
3.2.3 Fractionation
3.2.4 Fractionation Methods
3.2.5 Fractionation Plates
3.2.6 Analysis of Flow in Equipment
3.2.6.1 Case I: Analysis of a Low Pressure Column
3.2.6.2 Case II: Consideration of Vapor Feed
3.2.6.3 Case III: Analysis of the High-Pressure Column
3.3 Practical Considerations
3.3.1 Bubble-Cap Trays
3.3.2 Sieve Trays
3.3.3 Structured Packings
3.3.4 Care in the Design of Structured Packing
3.3.5 Safety in the Use of Structured Packing
3.4 Operational Control
3.4.1 FCV-1
3.4.2 FCV-2
3.4.3 FCV-3
3.4.4 Refrigeration
3.5 Product Recovery
3.6 Optimum Reflux
3.7 Distillation Equipment
3.7.1 Upper (Low Pressure) Column
3.7.2 Lower (High Pressure) Column
3.7.3 Main Condenser
3.7.4 Liquid Subcoolers
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
3.7.5 Process Considerations
3.7.6 Crude-Argon Separation Column
3.8 Development of Low Oxygen-Purity Processes
3.8.1 The Lachmann Principle
3.8.2 The Oxyton Process
3.8.2.1 Thermodynamic Analysis of the Oxyton Cycle
3.8.2.2 Oxyton Development
3.8.3 Variable-Load Plants
3.8.3.1 Version A
3.8.3.2 Version B
3.9 Exergy
References
Chapter 4
Rare (Noble) Gases
4.1 Helium
4.1.1 Sources of Helium
4.1.2 General Principles of Recovery of Helium
4.1.3 Recovery Processes from Natural Gases
4.1.4 Applications of Helium
4.1.5 Conservation of Helium
4.2 Neon
4.2.1 General
4.2.2 Sources of Neon
4.2.3 Recovery of Neon
4.2.4 Industrial Recovery of Neon
4.2.5 Industrial Applications of Neon
4.3 Argon
4.3.1 General
4.3.2 Sources of Argon
4.3.3 Recovery of Argon
4.3.4 Recovery Procedure and Equipment
4.3.5 Secondary Rectification and Final Purification
4.3.6 Refining Operation and Equipment
4.3.7 Applications of Argon
4.4 Krypton and Xenon
4.4.1 General
4.4.2 Sources of Krypton and Xenon
4.4.3 Recovery of Krypton and Xenon
4.4.4 Refining of Krypton and Xenon
4.4.5 Recovery of Rare Gases from Ammonia Purge Gas
4.4.6 Applications of Krypton and Xenon
References
Further Reading
Chapter 5
Front-End Purification Systems
5.1 Historical Background
5.1.1 Processes and Materials Used in Front-End Purification Systems
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
5.1.2 Original Prepurification
5.1.3 Adsorbents
5.1.3.1 General
5.1.4 Introduction of Activated Alumina
5.1.4.1 Activated Alumina
5.1.4.2 Regeneration of Activated Alumina
5.1.5 Zeolites (Molecular Sieves)
5.1.5.1 Chemical Formula
5.1.5.2 Types of Molecular Sieves
5.1.6 Silica Gel
5.2 Design of Current Front-End Purification Systems
5.2.1 General Background
5.2.2 Equipment Used
5.2.2.1 Precooling Units Upstream of Adsorption
5.2.2.2 Direct Contact Aftercooler
5.2.2.3 Evaporative Water Chiller
5.2.2.4 Mechanical Refrigeration Unit
5.2.3 Adsorber Unit
5.2.3.1 Standard Design
5.2.3.2 Multiple Vertical Vessels
5.2.3.3 Horizontal Vessels
5.2.3.4 Radial or Concentric Design
5.3 Process Operation
5.3.1 Isolation Valve Downstream of FEP
5.3.2 Adsorption Kinetics
5.3.3 Regeneration Concerns
5.3.4 Warning against Excessive Heat during Regeneration
5.3.5 High-Pressure Vessel Regeneration
5.3.6 Regeneration Options for FEP Units
5.3.6.1 General
5.3.7 Summary
5.3.8 Operational Time Cycle
5.3.9 Prepurification Adsorbent Units and Operating Stability
5.3.9.1 Improving Operating Stability
5.4 Safety
5.4.1 Hydrocarbon Breakthrough
5.4.2 Safety Add-ons
5.4.3 Liquid Oxygen Purge
5.4.4 Analyzers
5.5 Activated Aluminas for Front-End Purification Systems
5.5.1 Background
5.5.2 Pressure Swing Adsorption
5.5.3 Industrial Applications in Air Separation Plants
5.5.4 Observations on PSA Prepurification
5.5.5 Field Observations
References
Further Reading on the Subject of Adsorption and Carbon
Dioxide Build-up
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
Chapter 6
Product Liquefaction, Storage, and Transportation
6.1 Background
6.1.1 New Applications
6.2 Product Liquefaction
6.2.1 Enthalpy Balance
6.2.2 Direct Extraction
6.2.3 Basic Design Parameters for an Efficient Liquefaction System
6.2.4 Types of Liquefiers
6.2.4.1 Independent Liquefier
6.2.4.2 Integrated Liquefier
6.2.4.3 Very High-Pressure Liquefiers
6.2.4.4 General Summary
6.2.4.5 Energy Economics
6.3 Cryogenic Storage Facilities
6.3.1 General Considerations
6.3.2 Geographic Considerations
6.3.2.1 Ambient Temperature
6.3.2.2 Wind Loading
6.3.2.3 Seismic Loadings
6.3.2.4 Soil Conditions and Land Cost
6.3.2.5 Snow Loads
6.3.2.6 External Corrosion
6.3.2.7 Availability and Dependability of Utilities
6.3.2.8 Local Neighborhood Characteristics
6.3.3 Design Parameters
6.3.3.1 Low-Pressure Shop-Built Tanks
6.3.3.2 Storage Vessels with Internal Pressure
6.3.3.3 Low-Pressure Field-Built Aluminum Tanks
6.3.3.4 Flat Bottom Tanks
6.3.3.5 Spherical Containers
6.3.3.6 Cylindrical Vessels (Horizontal or Vertical)
6.3.4 Design Selection
6.3.5 Typical Designs of Cryogenic Storage Vessels
6.3.5.1 Vertical Cylindrical Tanks
6.3.5.2 Horizontal Cylindrical Storage Tanks
6.3.5.3 Spherical Tanks
6.3.5.4 Flat Bottom Tanks
6.3.6 Cryogenic Liquid Delivery Systems
6.3.6.1 General
6.3.6.2 Small Portable Containers
6.3.6.3 Customer Bulk Stations
6.3.6.4 LOX Distribution in a Shop
6.3.6.5 Liquid Deliveries by Truck
6.4 Cryogenic Pumps
6.4.1 Background
6.4.2 Variety of Applications
6.4.3 Materials
6.4.4 Present Designs
6.4.5 Net Positive Suction Head
6.4.6 Inlet Filter Screen
6.4.7 Installation and Connections
6.4.8 Typical Pump Piping Calculations
6.4.8.1 Velocity Constraints of Cryogenic Fluids
6.4.8.2 Pressure Drops due to Piping Components
6.4.9 Start-up of Pumps
6.4.10 High-Pressure Radial Pumps
6.4.11 Ultrahigh Pressure Pumps
6.4.12 Automation
6.5 Cryogenic Liquid Vaporizers
6.5.1 General Overview
6.5.2 Ambient Air Vaporizers
6.5.2.1 Modules Spread Apart
6.5.2.2 Modules in Alternate Operation
6.5.2.3 Modules with Pressurized Air
6.5.3 Direct Steam Vaporizers
6.5.3.1 Vaporization with Steam-Heated Water
6.5.4 Emergency Vaporization of Products
References
Chapter 7
Insulation
7.1 General
7.1.1 Theoretical Considerations
7.1.2 Insulations: General
7.1.3 Vacuum Insulation (Radiation)
7.1.4 Conductivity in Mass Insulations
7.1.5 Natural Convection in Mass Insulation
7.1.6 Vacuum Plus Powder or with Fibrous Insulations
7.1.7 Insulation (Multilayer, Super, or Simply MLI)
7.2 Industrial Practices
7.2.1 Industrial Applications of Insulation
7.2.2 Cryogenic Casings (Cold Boxes) for Process Equipment
7.2.3 Mineral Wool (Rock Wool)
7.2.4 Expanded Perlite
7.2.5 Glass Wool (Fiberglass)
7.2.6 Glass Blocks (Foam Glass)
7.2.7 Vermiculite
7.2.8 Silica Aerogel
7.2.9 Magnesium Carbonate
7.3 Cold Box Design for Insulation
7.3.1 Special Requirements for Liquid Hydrogen Processing Plants
7.4 Externally Located Process and Transfer Piping
7.4.1 Short Lines
7.4.2 Expanded Foams
7.4.3 Fiberglass Insulation
7.4.4 Prefabricated Vacuum-Insulated Piping
7.4.5 Multilayer Insulation
7.4.6 Cryogenic Liquid Piping Design
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
7.5 Insulation for Liquid Storage Tanks and Vessels
7.5.1 Large Storage Tanks (1000 t and over)
7.5.2 Smaller Storage Tanks (500 to 1000 t or 500 to 1000 kL)
7.5.3 Storage Tanks (50 to 500 t or 50 to 500 kL)
7.5.4 Storage Vessels (up to 50 t or 50 kL)
7.6 Vacuum Pumping Systems
7.6.1 General Overview
7.6.2 Vacuum Pumps
7.6.2.1 Roots Vacuum Pump
7.6.2.2 Rotary Vacuum Pump
7.6.2.3 Turbomolecular Pumps
7.6.2.4 Cryopumps
7.6.2.5 Adsorption Pumps
7.6.2.6 Getters
7.6.2.7 Small Laboratory Pumps
7.6.3 Periodic Purging and Deriming
7.6.4 Ancillary Equipment
7.6.4.1 Valves
7.6.4.2 Vacuum Measurement
References
For Further Study and Review
Chapter 8
Special Gases
8.1 Hydrogen
8.1.1 Sources of Hydrogen
8.1.2 Recovery of Hydrogen
8.1.3 Hydrogen Use in Petroleum Refineries
8.1.4 Refinery In-House Recovery of Hydrogen
8.1.5 Recovery from Coke Oven Gas
8.1.6 Hydrogen Generation Plants
8.1.6.1 Electrolysis of Water
8.1.6.2 Thermal Cracking of Ammonia
8.1.6.3 Treatment of Hydrocarbon Feedstock for Hydrogen Recovery
8.1.6.4 Small Steam Reforming Plants (150–1000 Nm3=h)
8.1.6.5 Large Hydrogen Generation Plants (over 1000 Nm3=h)
8.1.7 Synthesis Gas, Partial Oxidation
8.1.7.1 History
8.1.7.2 Partial Oxidation Process
8.1.7.3 Ammonia Synthesis
8.1.7.4 Hydrogen Recovery from Ammonia Synthesis Plants
8.1.7.5 Other Uses for Synthesis Gas
8.1.7.6 Fuel Cells
8.2 Carbon Monoxide
8.2.1 Sources
8.2.2 Carbon Monoxide Recovery
8.2.2.1 General
8.2.3 General Process of Recovery
8.2.4 Basic Cryogenic Recovery Processes
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
8.2.4.1 Methane Wash Cryogenic Recovery
8.2.4.2 Simplified Carbon Monoxide Recovery
8.2.5 Compression and Conversion Machinery for Carbon Monoxide
8.2.5.1 Requirements for a Liquid CO Pump
8.2.5.2 Conversion from LCO to Gas
8.2.5.3 Safety of LCO Transport
8.2.6 Safety Equipment in General
8.3 High-Purity Nitrogen
8.3.1 General Characteristics
8.3.2 Recovery
8.3.3 Applications for Inertness
8.3.3.1 Nitrogen as a Preservative
8.3.3.2 Nitrogen as an Emissions Controller
8.3.3.3 Nitrogen Use in Sparging
8.3.3.4 Nitrogen for Pressure Transferring
8.3.3.5 Liquid Nitrogen for Vapor Recovery
8.3.3.6 Liquid Nitrogen Makes Worn Rubber Tires Profitable
8.3.4 Process and Equipment Options
8.3.4.1 Cryogenic Process Cycle
8.3.4.2 Permeable Membrane Separation Process
8.3.4.3 Pressure Swing Adsorption
8.3.5 Ultrahigh-Purity Nitrogen
8.3.5.1 Removal of Outside Impurities
8.3.5.2 Process Cycle for Ultrahigh Purity Nitrogen
8.3.5.3 Outside Factors in Contamination
8.3.6 Other Atmospheric Nitrogen Compounds
8.3.6.1 General
8.3.6.2 Dinitrogen Monoxide (N2O) or Laughing Gas
8.3.6.3 Applications of Nitrous Oxide
8.3.6.4 Dangerous Side of Nitrous Oxide
8.4 Carbon Dioxide
8.4.1 General Characteristics
8.4.2 Sources of Carbon Dioxide
8.4.3 Recovery Processes for Carbon Dioxide
8.4.3.1 Food Grade Recovery from Petroleum Off-Gases.
8.4.3.2 Food Grade Recovery from a Fermentation Source
8.4.3.3 Nonfood Grade Carbon Dioxide
8.4.4 Dry Ice: Food Grade
8.4.4.1 Production of Dry Ice
8.4.5 Applications of Carbon Dioxide
8.5 Ozone
8.5.1 General
8.5.2 Properties of Ozone
8.5.3 Atmospheric Ozone Layer
8.5.4 Generation of Ozone
8.5.5 Applications
8.6 Methane
8.6.1 Properties of Methane
8.6.2 High-Purity Methane for Chemicals
8.6.3 Natural Gas Peak Load Shaving
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
8.6.4 Base Load Natural Gas Plants (LNG)
8.6.4.1 Cascade Cycle with Mixed Refrigerants in General
8.6.4.2 ARC Process Cycle
8.6.4.3 Further Development of Mixed Refrigerant Cycles
8.6.4.4 Heat Exchangers
8.6.4.5 Propane Refrigeration System
8.6.5 Pritko Process Cycle
8.6.5.1 General Process Cycle
8.6.6 Final Product Purification
8.6.6.1 Nitrogen Rejection
8.6.6.2 Helium Recovery
8.6.7 Natural Gas Prepurification
8.6.7.1 Acid Gases (CO2, H2S)
8.6.7.2 Water Removal (2H2O)
8.6.7.3 Mercury Contamination
8.6.7.4 Mercaptans
8.6.7.5 Butane
8.6.7.6 Propane and Ethane
8.6.8 Economics
8.6.8.1 LNG Economics
8.6.9 Safety
References
Further Reading on LNG
Chapter 9
Noncryogenic Separations
9.1 Permeable Membrane Separation
9.1.1 General Principles
9.1.2 Mechanical Design of Membranes
9.1.3 General Applications
9.1.3.1 Nitrogen Separation
9.1.3.2 Disadvantages of Membrane Separation
9.1.3.3 Hydrogen Recovery
9.2 Gas Separation by Adsorption
9.2.1 General Overview
9.2.1.1 Adsorption Processes Studies
9.2.1.2 Regeneration of Adsorbent
9.2.1.3 Hydrogen Recovery from Coke Oven Gas
9.3 Nitrogen Recovery
9.3.1 Carbon Adsorbent (Carbon Molecular Sieve) (CMS)
9.3.2 High-Purity Hydrogen Recovery
9.3.3 Oxygen Separation and Vacuum Pressure Swing Adsorption
9.3.3.1 Process Description
9.3.4 Engineering Design
9.3.4.1 Basic Principles
9.3.4.2 Disadvantages of Adsorption
9.3.4.3 Economics
References
Additional Reading on Noncryogenic Separations
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Chapter 10
10.1 Cryogenic Equipment, Materials, and Machinery
10.1.1 Heat Exchangers
10.1.1.1 General
10.1.2 Parameters of Design
10.1.3 Basic Principles
10.1.4 Typical Example for Designing Tubular Heat Exchangers
10.1.5 Brazed Aluminum Heat Exchangers
10.1.6 Effectiveness («)
10.1.7 Operability
10.1.8 Efficiency (h)
10.1.9 Industrial Applications
10.1.10 Development of Brazed Aluminum Heat Exchangers
10.1.10.1 Pressure Limitations
10.1.11 Vacuum Brazed Heat Exchangers
10.1.12 Mechanical Construction
10.1.13 Limitations
10.1.14 Operation and Maintenance
References
Further Reading
10.2 Expansion Machines
10.2.1 Expansion Machines
10.2.1.1 General
10.2.2 Reciprocating Expansion Engine
10.2.3 Radial Expansion Machines
10.2.4 Process Applications
10.2.5 Operational Factor (Air Separation Plants)
10.2.6 Refrigeration Availability
10.2.7 Process Technology
10.2.8 Expansion Turbine Efficiency
10.2.9 Expansion Turbine Losses
10.2.10 Measuring Efficiency
10.2.11 Various Expansion Turbine Systems
10.2.12 Mechanical Design Parameters
10.2.12.1 General
10.2.12.2 Operational Control
10.2.12.3 Shaft Speed (rpm)
10.2.12.4 Impeller Design
10.2.12.5 Materials of Construction
10.2.12.6 Bearings
10.2.12.6.1 Lubrication System
10.2.13 Instrumentation and Control
10.2.13.1 Process Control
10.2.13.2 Instruments Required
10.2.13.3 Computer Control (DCS)
10.2.14 Spares
10.2.15 General Applications for Expansion Machines
References
Supplementary Reading
10.3 Compressors
10.3.1 Compressors
10.3.1.1 General
10.3.2 Definitions
10.3.3 Centrifugal Compressors
10.3.3.1 General Parameters of Design (Per Stage)
10.3.3.2 Speed Variations
10.3.3.3 Surge Limitations and Pumping
10.3.3.4 Effect of Moisture
10.3.3.5 Effect of Altitude
10.3.3.6 Compressor Ratio Changes
10.3.3.7 Multistaging
10.3.3.8 Cooling Effect
10.3.3.9 Specific Speed
10.3.3.10 Stonewalling
10.3.3.11 Bearings
10.3.3.12 Seals
10.3.3.13 Lubrication System
10.3.3.14 Inlet Guide Vanes
10.3.3.15 Diffusers
10.3.4 Axial–Centrifugal Compressors
10.3.4.1 Bearings and Seals
10.3.4.2 Lubrication System
10.3.4.3 Inlet Guide Vanes
10.3.5 Axial Compressors
10.3.6 Integrally Geared Centrifugal Compressors (API-Standard-672)
10.3.6.1 General Overview
10.3.6.2 Functional Components and their Design
10.3.6.2.1 Gas Side
10.3.6.2.2 Mechanical Power Side
10.3.6.2.3 Bearings
10.3.6.2.4 Seals
10.3.6.3 Economics
10.3.7 Product Oxygen Compressors (RIO)
10.3.7.1 General Overview
10.3.7.2 General Safety Parameters
10.3.7.3 Safe Operation of Centrifugal Oxygen Compressors
10.3.7.4 Ultrahigh-Pressure Oxygen Compressors
10.3.7.4.1 Summary
10.3.8 High-Pressure Labyrinth Piston Compressor
10.3.8.1 Labyrinth Piston Compressor
10.3.8.1.1 General
10.3.8.2 Basic Design for Achieving Oil-Free Operation
10.3.8.3 Sealing Systems
10.3.8.4 Labyrinths
10.3.8.5 Internal Operating Elements
10.3.9 Compressor Drivers
10.3.9.1 Motor Torque
10.3.9.2 Enclosures
10.3.9.3 Power Factor
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.
10.3.10 Operating Reliability versus Capital Costs of Compressors
10.3.10.1 Recommendations
10.3.11 Applicable Compressor Correction Factors
Variables
Summary of Factors
Application of Factors
References
10.4 Valves and Valve Stations for the Cryogenic Industry
10.4.1 General Design and Materials
10.4.2 General Design in Sizing
10.4.3 Sizing Parameters
10.4.4 Valve Categories
10.4.5 Nonmetallic Material
10.4.6 Manufacturers of Fluorinated Polymers
10.4.7 Warm End Switching Valves
10.4.7.1 Warm End Reversing Valves
10.4.7.2 Warm End Switching Valves for PSA
Pre-Purification Systems
10.4.8 Flow Control Check Valves
10.4.9 Cryogenic Process Valves (General)
10.4.10 Hand-Operated Cryogenic Valves
10.4.11 Process Control Valves
10.4.12 Product Flow Control Valves
10.4.12.1 Gaseous Products
10.4.12.2 Liquid Products
10.4.13 Valve Connections
10.4.14 Insulation and Casing Designs for Cryogenic Valves
10.4.15 Liquid Purge Valves
10.4.16 Automatic Control of Cryogenic Valves
10.4.17 Cryogenic Liquid Storage Valves
10.4.18 Pressure Safety Relief Valves: Overview
10.4.18.1 Sizing for Pressure Safety Relief Valves
(International Units) SI
10.4.18.2 Pilot-Operated Safety Valves
10.4.18.3 Pressure and Vacuum Relief Valves
10.4.18.4 Bursting Disks
10.4.18.5 Check Valves
10.4.19 Maintenance of Cryogenic Valves
10.4.20 Valve Stations: General
10.4.21 Valve Station Design
10.4.22 Destruction of a Pressure Reduction Station
10.4.22.1 Hypothetical Conclusions
10.4.23 Recommendations Applicable to Pressure-Reducing Stations
Further Reading
Chapter 11
Instrumentation and Controls
11.1 Overview
11.2 General Requirements
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
11.3 Controls and Control System Philosophy
11.4 Minimum Instrumentation
11.4.1 General
11.4.2 Air Filter
11.4.3 Air Compressor
11.4.4 Direct Contact Aftercooler (If Applicable)
11.4.5 Front-End Purification
11.4.6 Air Separation Unit
11.4.7 Oxygen Product Compressor
11.4.8 Nitrogen Product Compressor
11.4.9 Liquid Oxygen Storage Tank
11.4.10 Liquid Nitrogen or Liquid Argon Storage Tank
11.4.11 Cooling Water System
11.4.12 Lube Oil System
11.4.13 Alarms, Shutdowns, and Interlocks
11.4.14 Analyzers
11.5 Possible Specific Requirements of Owner or Operator
11.5.1 Scope
11.5.2 Codes and Standards
11.5.3 Operational Philosophy
11.5.4 Distributed Control System
11.5.5 Field Instruments
11.5.5.1 Level Instruments
11.5.5.2 Temperature Instruments
11.5.5.3 Flow Instruments
11.5.5.4 Valves
11.5.5.5 Transmitters
11.5.5.6 Vibration Instruments
11.5.5.7 Local Controllers
11.5.5.8 Pressure Instruments
11.5.5.9 General
11.5.6 Interconnections
11.5.6.1 Pre-Packaging
11.5.6.2 Large Transformers
Chapter 12
Safety
12.1 Safety Overview
12.2 Chemistry of Ignition, Combustion, and Explosion
12.2.1 Source of Combustibles
12.2.2 Ignition Energy
12.3 Critical Areas in an Air Separation Plant
12.3.1 General Description
12.4 Purification Systems
12.4.1 Adsorption Systems
12.4.2 Reversing Heat Exchangers: Revex
12.4.3 Nonreversing Heat Exchangers (Primary Heat Exchangers)
12.4.4 Distillation Column and Main Condenser
12.4.5 Auxiliary Vaporizers
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
12.4.6 Ancillary Equipment for Safety
12.4.6.1 Rich Liquid Filters
12.4.6.2 LOX Guard Filter
12.4.7 Liquid Oxygen Storage Tanks
12.4.8 Summary
12.5 Parameters for the Safe Design of a Process Cycle
12.6 General Design Procedures
12.6.1 Front End Prepurification
12.6.2 Reversing Heat Exchangers
12.6.3 Nonreversing Heat Exchangers
12.6.4 High-Pressure Column
12.6.5 Main Condenser
12.7 Limits of Contaminants and Analysis
12.7.1 Argon as a Contaminant
12.7.2 Propane as a Contaminant
12.8 Rotating Machines and Other Equipment
12.8.1 Expansion Machines
12.8.2 Liquid Oxygen Recirculating Pumps
12.8.3 Liquid Purge Lines
12.8.4 Liquid Oxygen Disposal
12.9 Safe Practices
12.9.1 Analytical Equipment
12.10 Summary
12.11 Safety in the Design of Dynamic Oxygen Systems
12.12 Causes of Combustion
12.13 Test Procedures and Results as Explained by de Jessey
12.14 The Following Recommendations Are in Order
12.14.1 Flow Velocities
12.14.2 A Very Careful Selection of Materials
12.15 Consideration of Dynamic Oxygen Conditions
12.15.1 Tests
12.15.2 Example
12.15.3 Nonferrous Metals
12.15.4 Further Studies
12.15.5 Nickel and Its Alloys
12.15.6 Inconel Alloys
12.15.7 Stainless Steels
12.15.8 Copper and Its Alloys
12.15.9 Aluminum Bronze
12.15.10 Aluminum and Its Alloys
12.15.11 Compatibility of Aluminum and Its Alloys for
Structured Packings (Structured Packing Consists of
Corrugated Strips Coiled and Used as Distillation Trays)
12.15.12 Supplementary Tests on Aluminum
12.15.13 Replication of Aluminum Testing
12.15.14 Machines Used in the Fabrication of Structured
(Corrugated) Packing
12.15.15 Summary
12.15.16 Iron Alloys
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
12.15.17 Nonmetallic Materials
12.15.18 Lubricants
12.15.19 Caution
References
For Further Reading
Chapter 13
Cleaning for Oxygen Systems
13.1 Overview
13.2 General Considerations
13.3 Cleaning Requirements for Oxygen Systems
13.3.1 Inspection Standards for Fixed Surfaces
13.3.2 Inspection Standards for Movable Parts
13.3.3 Cleaning Procedures
13.4 Equipment other than Piping
13.4.1 Cleaning Procedures: General
13.5 Cleaning Procedures for Carbon Steel Piping
13.5.1 Definition and Recognition of Contaminants
13.6 Cleaning Procedures Available
13.6.1 Blast Cleaning: General
13.6.2 Sand Blasting in Place (Sandjet)
13.6.2.1 Equipment
13.6.2.2 Procedure
13.6.2.3 Inspection and Control
13.6.3 Secondary Cleaning Procedures
13.6.4 Pre-Cleaning before Erection (with Cleaning Reagents)
13.6.4.1 Precautions
13.6.5 Cleaning after Erection: General
13.6.6 Alternative A—with Solvents
13.6.7 Alternative B—Cleaning Agents
13.6.8 Alternative C—with Movable Pistons
13.6.9 Cleaning Stainless Steel and Nonferrous Metals Such as Copper,
Associated Fittings, Parts, and Fabrications
13.6.10 Cleaning Aluminum Piping, Fittings, Parts, and Fabrications
13.6.11 Alternate Methods of Cleaning Stainless Steel Pipe,
Aluminum Pipe, Copper Tubing, and Their Fittings
13.6.12 Oxygen Compressors
13.7 Cleaning Agents
13.8 Preparation of Cleaning Agents
13.8.1 Caustic or Alkaline Solutions
13.8.2 Acid Solutions
13.8.3 Agents for Stainless Steel, Copper, and Aluminum
13.8.4 Solvents
13.8.5 Aqueous or Semiaqueous Agents
13.9 Drying Gases
13.10 Testing and Inspection Procedures
13.10.1 Indirect Inspection
13.10.2 After Using Solvents or Chemicals
2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
13.11 Ancillary Tools and Equipment
13.11.1 Wire Brushes
13.11.2 Immersion Tanks
13.11.3 Protective Clothing
13.12 Labor Force
13.12.1 Personnel
13.12.2 Supervision
13.12.3 Inspection
13.12.4 Cleaning Contractors
13.13 Protection and Storage
13.13.1 Piping
13.13.2 Small Equipment
13.13.3 Large Equipment
References
Chapter 14
Economics
14.1 General Overview
14.2 Historical Background
14.3 Post–World War II Development
14.4 Economic Overview
14.5 Energy Costs
14.5.1 Oxygen Purity
14.5.2 Liquid Oxygen Production
14.5.3 Pure Nitrogen Recovery (Purity at 99.9995%)
14.5.4 Argon and Rare Gas Recovery
14.5.5 Prepurification of Air
14.6 Investment Costs in General
14.6.1 Approximate Allocation of Investment Costs
14.6.2 Contingencies
14.7 Operating Costs
14.8 Maintenance
14.9 Marketing History of Industrial Gases
14.10 Challenging Market Conditions
14.11 Investing in a Project
14.11.1 Raising Investment Capital
14.11.2 Present Value of an Investment
14.11.3 Caveat on the Use of DCFROI
14.12 Envoi
Appendix
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